A RECORD OF ALL THINGS UNDER HEAVEN
As gathered from the oldest accounts that remain
PROLOGUE — CHAPTER SIXTEEN
On the Matter of Chenghuang — 城隍 — the City God
His name is Chenghuang — 城隍.
Cheng — 城 — means city wall. Defensive rampart. Walled city.
Huang — 隍 — means moat. The dry or water-filled ditch surrounding a city wall.
Together — 城隍 — the walls and moats. The boundaries that define a city.
He is also called Chenghuangshen — 城隍神 — the God of Walls and Moats.
He is also called Chenghuangye — 城隍爺 — Lord City God.
He is the guardian deity of a specific city or town.
He is the supernatural magistrate — 神明地方官 — shenming difang guan — of that place.
He governs both the living and the dead within his jurisdiction.
He is above the Tudi Gong — 土地公 — in rank.
He is below the Jade Emperor — 玉皇大帝 — in rank.
He stands between the earth and heaven.
He is the middle official.
He is not one god.
Every city has its own.
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On the oldest record.
There is no mention of Chenghuang in Chinese literature before the sixth century of the common era.
Tang dynasty — 唐朝 — Tang Chao — officials wished to give the god an ancient origin.
They identified him with Shui Yong — 水庸 — the God of Waterways — one of the Eight Spirits — 八神 — Ba Shen — to whom the legendary Emperor Yao — 帝堯 — Di Yao — reportedly made offerings.
Shui Yong — 水庸 — has the same meaning as Chenghuang. Both refer to walls and waters surrounding a settlement.
This identification gave Chenghuang a history extending back to the legendary era.
The identification was made by the Tang dynasty. Not by the ancient texts themselves.
This record notes the distinction.
The oldest verified written mention of Chenghuang worship is from the sixth century of the common era.
What happened before that is not recorded.
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On how Chenghuang worship grew.
During the Tang dynasty — 618 to 907 of the common era — the cult of Chenghuang grew rapidly.
Officials began worshipping him before taking up their posts.
They spent the night in his temple seeking guidance.
When difficult legal cases presented themselves they returned to the temple.
They slept there hoping Chenghuang would reveal the answer in a dream.
By the Song dynasty — 宋朝 — Song Chao — his worship had spread to most cities in China.
The Song emperor gave him official ranks and titles corresponding to the ranks of the human officials whose cities he governed.
The City God of a prefecture — 府 — fu — held the rank of a prefectural official.
The City God of a county — 縣 — xian — held the rank of a county official.
The rank of the god matched the rank of the city.
In 1382 the Hongwu Emperor — 洪武帝 — Hong Wu Di — of the Ming dynasty — 明朝 — Ming Chao — had all Chenghuang temples appropriated by the government.
He directed the people to offer sacrifices to the protector of their city.
Chenghuang worship became official state religion.
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On who Chenghuang is.
In practice, Chenghuang is almost always a deceased local official.
He was a human being in life.
He served his community with distinction.
He died.
He was elevated to the position of City God.
The Jade Emperor — 玉皇大帝 — appointed him to govern the city in death that he governed in life.
He holds the position for three years — 三年 — san nian — the same term as a human magistrate.
At the end of three years his performance is reviewed.
If satisfactory he is renewed.
If unsatisfactory he is replaced.
A city could change the identity of its Chenghuang by forgetting the old god and welcoming a new one.
The old temple remained.
A new god was installed.
A celebration was held.
The new Chenghuang took up his duties.
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On specific named Chenghuang.
Different cities record different individuals as their City God.
The Chenghuang of Shanghai is Huo Guang — 霍光 — the great general of the Han dynasty — 漢朝 — Han Chao — who served under Emperor Wu — 漢武帝 — Han Wudi. He was elevated to Shanghai's City God because of his loyalty and service. His statue stands in the front hall of the Shanghai City God Temple — 上海城隍廟 — Shanghai Chenghuang Miao — which was first built during the Yongle period — 永樂年間 — of the Ming dynasty.
The Chenghuang of Hangzhou — 杭州 — is Zhou Xin — 周新 — an upright official of the Ming dynasty known for his integrity and fearlessness in prosecuting the corrupt.
The Chenghuang of Beijing — 北京 — is Yang Jiye — 楊繼業 — a famous general of the Song dynasty.
Each city holds its own account. Each account is considered equally valid within its own jurisdiction.
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On his appearance.
He is depicted as a Chinese official — 中國官員 — Zhongguo guanyuan.
He wears the formal robes — 官服 — guanfu — of a government magistrate.
He wears the black hat — 烏紗帽 — wusha mao — of a Qing dynasty official in most depictions.
He sits on a throne — 寶座 — baozuo — in a hall that resembles a court of justice.
He holds a gavel — 驚堂木 — jing tang mu — the wooden block a judge strikes to call the court to order.
His expression is solemn.
His posture is official.
He is not fearsome in his primary appearance.
He is authoritative.
He is the magistrate. Not the executioner.
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On his court.
He does not work alone.
His temple contains a full court — 衙門 — yamen — that mirrors an earthly government office.
The attendants of his court are recorded as follows.
The Civil Judge — 文判官 — Wen Pan Guan. He holds the Book of Life and Death — 生死簿 — shengsi bu. He records the deeds of every person within the jurisdiction. He determines the length of each person's life based on their conduct.
The Military Judge — 武判官 — Wu Pan Guan. He is responsible for escorting the souls of the dead. He brings the newly deceased before the City God for judgment.
General Fan — 范將軍 — Fan Jiangjun — also called Fan Wu Jiu — 范無救. He is short. His complexion is dark. He wears black robes. He is the Black Impermanence — 黑無常 — Hei Wuchang.
General Xie — 謝將軍 — Xie Jiangjun — also called Xie Bi An — 謝必安. He is tall. His complexion is pale. He wears white robes. His tongue hangs from his mouth. He is the White Impermanence — 白無常 — Bai Wuchang.
These two generals serve the City God as ghost-catchers. They escort the newly dead to the underworld. They capture those who attempt to escape judgment.
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On the origin of General Xie and General Fan.
They were two court bailiffs — 差役 — chai yi — in life.
They were friends.
They were assigned to find an escaped convict.
It began to rain.
Xie Bi An went to find shelter or an umbrella.
Fan Wu Jiu waited beneath the Nantai Bridge — 南臺橋 — Nantai Qiao.
The rain intensified.
The water rose.
Fan Wu Jiu drowned beneath the bridge.
He had waited faithfully for his friend.
Xie Bi An returned.
He found his friend dead.
He hanged himself — 上吊 — shang diao — from the bridge out of grief and guilt.
He could not live knowing his friend had died waiting for him.
After their deaths they were appointed by the Jade Emperor to serve the City God.
Fan Wu Jiu became the Black Impermanence — 黑無常 — Hei Wuchang. He is short and dark because he drowned.
Xie Bi An became the White Impermanence — 白無常 — Bai Wuchang. He is tall and pale with a hanging tongue because he hanged himself.
They are also called the Seventh Lord — 七爺 — Qi Ye — and the Eighth Lord — 八爺 — Ba Ye.
The name Qi Ye for Xie dates from the Song dynasty. The name changed to Ba Ye during the Ming dynasty to avoid conflict with the addressing of imperial court dukes. It returned to Qi Ye in the late Qing dynasty.
Both names are recorded here.
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On the Ox Head and Horse Face.
The court of Chenghuang also includes Ox Head — 牛頭 — Niu Tou — and Horse Face — 馬面 — Ma Mian.
They are guards.
Ox Head has the head of an ox on a human body.
Horse Face has the face of a horse on a human body.
They escort souls from the place of death to the court of judgment.
They appear at the moment of death.
They cannot be resisted.
They are also servants of Yanluo Wang — 閻羅王 — the King of Hell — and appear in both the City God's court and the Ten Courts of Hell.
Their chapter is recorded later in this record.
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On his duties.
He ensures the safety of the city — 保護城市 — baohu chengshi.
He governs the affairs of the dead within his jurisdiction — 管理亡靈 — guanli wangling.
He judges the recently deceased — 審判新亡者 — shenpan xin wangzhe — before sending them to the Ten Courts of Hell — 十殿閻羅 — Shi Dian Yan Luo.
He records the good and evil deeds of every person within his jurisdiction — 記錄善惡 — jilu shan e.
He receives reports from the Tudi Gong — 土地公 — beneath him.
He sends reports to the Jade Emperor — 玉皇大帝 — above him.
He intercedes in communal concerns — rain, drought, flood, plague — when petitioned.
He intercedes in personal concerns — illness, legal disputes, missing persons — when petitioned.
He maintains order between the living and the dead.
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On reporting a death.
When a death occurred, the family or close friends of the deceased visited the Chenghuang temple.
They reported the fact of the death.
They did this so that Chenghuang's records could be updated.
If the death was not reported, Chenghuang's records would show the person as still living.
An unreported soul could become a wandering ghost — 遊魂 — you hun — without proper guidance to the underworld.
The report protected the deceased.
It also protected the living.
A soul that does not know it is dead is dangerous.
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On officials consulting Chenghuang.
Before a new magistrate — 地方官 — difang guan — assumed his post, he spent a night in the Chenghuang temple.
He prayed for guidance.
He introduced himself to the god.
He asked for help in governing well.
This practice was observed from the Tang dynasty through the Qing dynasty — 清朝 — Qing Chao.
When a difficult legal case could not be resolved, the magistrate returned to the temple.
He slept there.
He hoped Chenghuang would reveal the answer in a dream.
This practice is recorded without commentary on whether the dreams were reliable.
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On the inspection tour — 出巡 — Chu Xun.
Chenghuang does not remain in his temple.
He makes inspection tours of his territory.
He travels through the city at night.
He checks on the living.
He checks on the dead.
He ensures nothing is concealed from his judgment.
The night of the inspection tour is announced in advance.
The people prepare.
Evil spirits are warned to hide or face capture.
General Fan and General Xie lead the procession.
The Eight Generals — 八家將 — Ba Jia Jiang — march in formation.
The sound of gongs and drums precedes the god.
The procession passes through every street of the city.
Nothing within the city walls escapes the tour.
In Hsinchu — 新竹 — Xinzhu — Taiwan — the annual inspection tour of the City God is one of the largest religious events in the country. It draws thousands of participants. The night patrol — 夜巡 — ye xun — drives away evil before the god begins his formal inspection.
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On the hierarchy of City Gods.
Not all City Gods are equal.
The rank of a Chenghuang is determined by the rank of the city he governs.
The City God of a province — 省 — sheng — holds the highest rank.
The City God of a prefecture — 府 — fu — holds the second rank.
The City God of a county — 縣 — xian — holds the third rank.
The City God of a town — 鎮 — zhen — holds the lowest rank.
They all report upward.
The county City God reports to the prefecture City God.
The prefecture City God reports to the province City God.
The province City God reports to the Jade Emperor.
The system mirrors the human imperial bureaucracy exactly.
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On the temple structure.
The Chenghuang temple — 城隍廟 — Chenghuang Miao — is designed to resemble a court of justice — 衙門 — yamen.
The god sits in judgment at the center.
His officials stand on either side.
The books of life and death are kept in the hall.
Before the god stands a large abacus — 算盤 — suanpan.
The abacus calculates the moral debts and credits of every person within the jurisdiction.
Every good deed. Every evil act. All recorded. All calculated.
The abacus does not make mistakes.
Outside the temple gate stands a board with an inscription.
The inscription reads: You Lai Le — 你來了 — You have come.
It is addressed to the visitor.
It is also addressed to the newly dead.
Both arrive at the same gate.
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On his birthday.
His birthday varies by city.
Each city celebrates the birthday of its own specific Chenghuang.
The birthday of the Chenghuang of Shanghai is observed on the twentieth day of the fourth lunar month — 四月二十日 — si yue er shi ri.
These celebrations are called Miao Hui — 廟會 — Temple Fairs.
They include theatrical performances — 戲曲 — xiqu.
They include fireworks — 煙火 — yanghuo.
They include incense burning — 燒香 — shaoxiang.
They include processions through the streets.
The entire city participates.
The god inspects his people.
The people celebrate their god.
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On the phrase.
There is a phrase in Chinese.
It says: Zou Zhe Qiao, Kan Na Lao Chenghuang — 走這橋,看那老城隍.
It means: cross this bridge, see the old City God.
It refers to the moment of death.
The bridge is the bridge between the living world and the dead world.
The old City God is waiting on the other side.
He already knows everything.
He has been keeping records since the day you were born.
END OF CHAPTER SIXTEEN